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§ 2

There have been many reasons in our time for thinking and writing about this subject. Whenever I look up the Royal Ordinance on Servants and Hired Workers of 21 August 1739 and its article 1, § 1, I cannot avoid shuddering on reading these words: No vagrants, vagabonds, idlers or dependent lodgers ought to be tolerated in our country and our realm. These and other insulting designations refer to none other than those who are not engaged under annual service contracts, and it is decreed with regard to them that they are outlawed within the borders of Sweden, as stated in § 2: And no excuse shall be valid, whether for a farmhand, maid or any other servant fit for work, to evade an annual service contract for the sake of other employment that they may cite or allege as a pretext. Paragraph 4 imposes a fine of 10 to 20 daler on those who harbour them and show some humanity towards these outlaws, and § 5 sets in motion the entire body of officials in the realm – census commissioners, county governors, magistrates, clergymen, churchwardens and sextons, deans and bishops, sheriffs, district police superintendents and parish constables, governors, public prosecutors, etc. – to seek out these unhappy people and send them to hard labour in fortresses and male and female penitentiaries and to annual service contracts.

The honourable Estates of the Realm themselves realized that this hue and cry after vagabonds would put them in fear and cause them to flee far away from such troubled regions, and therefore the officials are given new orders in article 8 to confine them strictly within the borders of the kingdom, and I venture to say that although this regulation has driven out several thousand Swedish natives and has prevented the immigration of many foreigners to take service among us, had this statute on servants been strictly observed everywhere, as regards vagabonds and a limited number of servants per farm and the prescribed hiring fees and yearly wages and other things, then Sweden would certainly have half a million fewer inhabitants than it has now, who have all the same been retained only by infringing a law that is highly praised by the majority.

When I look at the scheme elaborated during the Diet of 17661 in its Finance and Trade Committee, which in § 3 recommends the enrolment of all masters and servants; when I consider § 18 through to 27, which declares all those who have not accepted an annual service contract liable to a penalty or hard labour in female penitentiaries and on public works, and add to this that their period of freedom,2 which was seven weeks under the previous ordinance, should now be shortened to 14 days, and if they had not found a new master during that period it stated that he who applies first shall then take such servants into his service, there can be no lack of reasons to inquire into a subject that so greatly affects our human rights and the growth of the entire realm.

But it is really more recent events that have brought this matter up for debate at this particular time. In Västernorrland, and in particular in the county of Gävleborg, a general complaint has arisen that there is a shortage of servants and that they are intolerably expensive to hire and, furthermore, lazy, wilful and reckless in their work, so that the residents feared that their farms would become wasteland, which has led to some county assemblies being convened and deliberations held on this subject, during which it has been proposed that certain wages should be paid to a farmhand and a maid, that masters and servants should be enrolled, and that those who wish to move should be distributed by lot among those who require them, as well as other things; and in some counties the governors, in order to obtain a more plentiful supply of servants for the inhabitants of the county, have adopted from the statute on servants the designations of outlawed vagabonds, vagrants and cottars and thereby procured for the masters a reasonably large haul of servants.

This would not, however, have been of any particular significance to the general public had not those masters who lived in neighbouring counties become aware of it and the public, having read the account of it in the Transactions of the Royal Patriotic Society,3 become resentful that they had not been allowed to participate in the division of these spoils and thus appeared to be intent on demanding from their county governors a similar parcelling out of servants, on reasonable terms. Several complaints about it were published in the transactions of that Society, and there were even demands for assistance from that body. The newspaper Dagligt Allehanda4 was inundated with cries of distress from masters who believed that all farming and rural crafts would now be doomed unless relief were soon at hand. No one listens, no one responds, everyone complains, until one person in authority imprudently unmasks the whole plan, loudly demands regulations that would give the masters scarcely less than jus vitae et necis5 over their servants and proposes penitentiaries etc. by the farms. This was so harsh and so definite that I could not read it without horror, and it moved me so deeply that I was unable to leave it without a response, and as the opinion in all the papers was so general, I feared that new fetters were already being forged for humankind among us. To forestall these, should that prove possible, is the purpose of this publication, as well as to bring under scrutiny a subject on which the majority selfishly and unthinkingly drift with the current.


  1. . . . the scheme elaborated during the Diet of 1766: as Pentti Virrankoski notes, Chydenius here remembers incorrectly, as the mentioned “scheme” was quite liberal in its tone and critical towards harsh measures against the unemployed (P. Virrankoski, Anders Chydenius: Demokratisk politiker i upplysningens tid, Stockholm: Timbro, 1995, p. 297f.).
  2. their period of freedom: according to the statute on servants of 1739, a servant wishing to leave his or her master had to find new employment during a seven­week period before 29 September. See also The Causes of Emigration, § 4, note 1.
  3. Transactions of the Royal Patriotic Society: this society was founded in 1766 under the auspices of King Adolphus Frederic in order to support the arts and trades of Sweden as well as its industriousness. Its members during its first decades of existence were made up of industrial leaders, politicians, noble landowners and learned men with a patriotic zeal for reforming and developing the Swedish economy. From the start, the Patriotic Society published a monthly journal called HushållningsJournal.
  4. Dagligt Allehanda: the first Swedish daily newspaper, which started in 1769 and existed until 1849.
  5. jus vitae et necis: “the right over life and death”.

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