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Writing: Memorial on the Freedom of Printing

Memorial on the Freedom of Printing

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Humble memorial

Copy presented before the Third Committee of the Grand Joint Committee on 12 November 1765.

It requires no proof that an equitable freedom of writing and printing is one of the firmest pillars on which a free government may rest; for otherwise the Estates can never possess the requisite knowledge to institute good laws, administrators of the law will be subject to no control in the performance of their offices and those under its jurisdiction have little knowledge of the requirements of the law, the limits of official power and their own obligations; learning and good sense will be repressed, coarseness of thought, expression and manners gain acceptance and within a few years a horrific darkness will settle over the entire firmament of our liberty. But on what basis that freedom should rightly be established, so that on the one hand it cannot be suppressed by any one individual nor on the other hand decline into an arbitrary frenzy, is something that requires more careful consideration.

This subject divides into two main questions, namely: on whose responsibility should the printing occur, and under what laws?

Three alternatives in particular appear to deserve examination in this regard, namely whether the censorship shall be entrusted to a specific individual or to the author or else be entrusted to several individuals.

I can only conclude that it would be most hazardous for liberty to entrust this matter to a single man and thus set him up as a judge of the thoughts and the reason of the whole nation; even if he were a paragon, it would impose an incredible burden on book learning, for neither would he have the time to deal with everything nor could the opening thus created for self-interest be in any way closed off under such a form of autocracy. Certainly nothing would then be allowed to appear that in any way touched the personal interest of the censor himself, even if public interest might demand it. The censor would then be able to deprive those of their livelihood who have acquired nothing but scholarly knowledge and wish to make a living from their writings, he could withhold much useful information from the general public merely out of a personal hatred for certain individuals or certain truths, and by promoting publications that appeal to him and obstructing the rest, which seems to me to be the most sensitive issue, he could within a few years recast the nation in his own mould as far as modes of thought, writing and expression and indeed our laws are concerned.

Daily experience teaches us that we cannot rely on the wording of instructions or on any laws unless the matter is self-regulating. Nothing can be written about politics so carefully that it may not by a governing power or by the prevailing opinion be considered as contrary to fundamental laws etc. when it conflicts with their interests and aims, and therefore be suppressed. Nor is anything needed for that purpose other than simply a delay in the censoring of such writings, in order to exhaust the authors, which will in a few years transform a whole nation.

The liberty of a nation is preserved not only by the laws but by public information and knowledge as to how they are being administered.

As regards the second alternative, making authors themselves responsible, I see three problems in particular with that. First, neither anonymous nor pseudonymous writers will then be able to have anything printed, although they often provide the best information and can be more impartially read and examined. Non quaeritur quis, sed quid.1 In the next place it seems disconcerting to me that the nation could not trust most authors should a calumniator wish to disseminate libels and some ignorant or petty author not have the ability to avoid his own misfortune. Finally, most individuals also lack the impartiality and discrimination required to set a true value on their own writings and activities.

What humble, poor and defenceless author would then be safe to write the slightest thing against a superior power, if he saw that he could easily become sacrificed for the truth and for the liberty of his fellow citizens?

I therefore have no hesitation in agreeing with the third option: where censorship will be placed in the hands of several individuals, and emulation among them will encourage rather than inhibit reflective talents. That form of censorship could in its turn be implemented in two ways, for either certain censors should be appointed for each branch of knowledge or else the matter should simply be entrusted to the printers. Let us see which of these would benefit the nation more.

Excessive disadvantages are associated with the first alternative. First, a jealous squabble will then arise among them about the demarcations between the disciplines, which are in fact interconnected in innumerable ways. Then, secondly, our impoverished national treasury will be encumbered with a greatly increased salary bill. Third, a new burden will be imposed on the sciences and scholarship, either of paying them in accordance with the law or else of promoting some works by bribing the censor. Fourth, the political aspect of our freedom of printing, which is the most priceless possession of liberty, will remain in the same manner under a censor politicus, who will then exercise the same autocracy over that aspect as before.

Again, if anyone should wish to direct literature down the academic road and allocate all writings intended for publication to their appropriate faculties and from the faculties to particular professors within them for perusal and supervision, the burden on literature will thereby be increased rather than alleviated. It will, first, be a lengthy diversion for those who do not live close to the universities to send all their works there; second, a further expense in sending them there and back and paying the agent, as well as remunerating the censor; third, a great waste of time, so that both author and printer would grow tired before any work could be prepared for the press in this way; fourth, just as much autocracy over thoughts and reason as ever before; fifth, a monopoly in fees for the censorship; sixth, one and the same piece of writing would occasionally be subjected to censorship in all four faculties, as something purely theological, juridical, medical and philosophical may appear in it; and seventh, the professors could never be instructed to deal promptly with such writings, as they are usually able to find an excuse in their lectures, disputations and other time-consuming duties.

Nothing else thus remains than to leave it to the printers, after everything that relates to the foundations of our religion has been excluded, to print, strictly on their own responsibility, according to clear instructions, whatever they can turn to good account.

The advantages that will hereby be gained for literature are, I am convinced, quite extensive. An author will then, first, avoid the strenuous inconvenience of attending for several months on a censor who is buried in paper. Second, he saves around 10 per cent of the entire advance for printing the book, which is now spent on the censorship. Third, writers will be encouraged to compete with each other, whereby the printing houses will be able to select the best from a larger number of works that will be heaped upon them and to print them. Fourth, there will be even greater emulation between the printing houses to win a reputation in the nation for learned, elegantly written and useful works that emanate from their presses. Fifth, the state and the government would have an assured resort to the printing houses, should anything contrary to the instruction be found to have been published, far exceeding the redress that the nation could ever demand or expect from an offending censor and author. For printers possess almost the most valuable workshops that exist in the country, their equipment alone amounting to a capital of 60,000 or 70,000 daler kmt2, being difficult to move and impossible to escape abroad with, apart from which printers are involved in so much business over and above that and are for all these reasons, by the nature of their own trade, far less likely to wish to abscond than both censor and author might be when under close surveillance. They can afford an imposed fine of several thousand daler and pay it to the Crown, but an author often scarcely a styver3. If anyone abuses his freedom as a printer, the fine is capable of ruining his credit and weakening him, while his case will be a clear mirror to others in which to see the cost of self-indulgence and a warning not to kick over the traces, and all that without causing any inconvenience to literature. Sixth, by this arrangement our printing houses would also gain a reputation commensurate with such hard and responsible work, as learned men would enjoy conducting such a free and important enterprise.

That the majority of the printers in the country do not at present possess the requisite understanding for that should by no means deter us from immediately implementing this proposal. How often does it not happen that simple-minded people are convicted under a law of which they have been unaware? But if the law is concise and clear, printers should be able to learn to observe it, and it will be a question of the carefulness and responsibility of those who do not themselves understand the issue to engage to look through the manuscripts that are received, on whatever terms they think fit, men so learned, steady and upright that they could entrust to them a significant part of their welfare, which almost all officials are frequently obliged to do in their work, as they do not personally have time to deal with everything. Nor would that cost printers very much, if they were to restrict themselves to learned and honest people, of modest achievement, among whom there is often more diligence, understanding and judgment than among those who are more brilliant.

Nor would one need to fear that the nation would on that account be overwhelmed with a multitude of worthless publications. For competition for sales would keep them busy trying to please everyone. For the needs of the scholars no texts would be printed except those that are the most excellent in every branch of learning. Printers would then conduct correspondence about books both within and outside the country. They would endeavour to serve those who love literature and would therefore only print masterpieces. They would light the way for the citizens and teach them to know their fatherland, revere their king and obey the laws of the realm.

Printing is, after all, nothing but a method of communicating one’s thoughts to others absently. To expect from people such a perfect expression of their views that it is not subject to contradiction and modification is utterly in vain. If the statement is preposterous, there will soon be those who will refute it. If it is founded on truth, it will remain invincible, and no fortress can be commended more highly than the one that has withstood the severest sieges. If the case is equivocal, the truth has to be ascertained by published exchanges. If that is refused, it can be from no other cause than fear of the day when the truth will emerge. And nothing can honour innocence more than allowing her to present her arguments to the public. Even if the evil that is printed is read by more people than can listen to a speech, the response given to it is likewise read by more and produces a deeper conviction, so that there is perfect reciprocity in that respect. The falsehood shames its originator but benefits the nation, in that the truth is established and is able to grow firmer roots.

I now come to the second question: that is, under what law should this freedom of printing be established? I know many Swedish laws of which the scope often exceeds their observance, and although they are drafted with all possible care, one sees scarcely a single line that is not open to misconstruction and infringement. Happy is the people that has succinct laws and obeys them. One could never wish the bitterest enemies of the realm anything worse than numerous and diverse laws.

I believe that it could consist of the following few and concise points.

First, everything that concerns the foundations of religion and theology should be supervised by a theological faculty or, in the absence of one, by a generally approved and learned theologian and be printed on his responsibility.

Second, it shall be forbidden to print anything that offends against our form of government, in so far as it promotes the abjured sovereignty4 and deleterious aristocracy, on pain of a fine of 4,000 daler smt.

Should several individuals consult together and print matter designed to overthrow liberty, they shall all be punished under ch. 4, par. 8 of the criminal code.

Third, everything that libellously attacks individuals and offends against virtue and good morals shall likewise be banned, on pain of a fine of 1,000 daler smt, in addition to what the law prescribes. Whosoever offends against this shall be charged and judged at the next session of the appropriate court, for which purpose the printer should first be charged. If he is able to legally deflect the case from himself to the author, then both shall remain liable, though neither of these may be brought to trial unless an actor publicus5 assists them and conducts their case, nor shall any verdict be executed that affects livelihood, life and honour before the Estates themselves have given their verdict on the case. All such cases shall immediately be admitted and decided by the judge, on pain of accountability.

Stockholm, 12 June 1765

Anders Kraftman


  1. Non quaeritur quis, sed quid: “What matters is not who says it but what he says.”
  2. daler kmt: Daler kopparmynt. In the eighteenth century (until 1776), 1 daler smt = 3 daler kmt. Daler smt and daler kmt were the main currency units up to 1776
  3. styver: Up until 1776, the unofficial name for 1 öre courant (silver coins, = 1/8 öre).
  4. the abjured sovereignty: the new forms of government of 1719 and 1720 strongly turned against the sovereign rule of the former autocratic system of government. During the Age of Liberty, all officials, for example, had to take an oath binding them to oppose all attempts to reinforce autocratic rule in the state. A similar oath was included in the Royal Accession Charter.
  5. actor publicus: In ancient Rome the actor publicus was an officer who had the superintendence or care of slaves belonging to the state. Since then, more generally an actor publicus is supposed to be the representative of the community (res publica), for example in lawsuits against the state or other authorities. He is often also called notarius publicus.

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