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Writing: The Causes of Emigration

The Causes of Emigration, § 15

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§ 15

We now move quickly away from agriculture to consider the disadvantages that constrain our handicrafts. Among these, with good reason, I place the simultaneous pursuit of various crafts first.1

It is amazing how this circumstance alone holds back our workshops and makes them incapable of ever developing our manufactures to the same level as other nations or to sell their products at the same prices as they do. Our masters need to keep learning throughout life and sometimes only have the opportunity once or twice in their lifetime to do certain things that are now regarded as forming part of their profession. It thus requires an uncommon skill to be able to adapt themselves to such specific cases and circumstances if the work is to be satisfactory, but the dexterity, which can never be achieved without thousands of repetitions, is still lacking. The less skilful ones are not even able to make ends meet; the workshops are therefore not profitable among us, and the workers have to look around somewhere else, where they can make a better living with less knowledge.

Second, our crafts are held back by slack inspection. The government and the country have not been sparing with investments to provide support for newly established industries, but how these are then used demands careful supervision; they can be spent on extravagance and high living, and people always believe they will find a way, if challenged, to excuse themselves somehow. A little entertainment, some cash in hand can soon make inspectors amenable, attribute minor errors to accidents, turn a mediocre establishment into an incomparable one and turn craft items assembled from everywhere into products of their own workshop on the day of inspection.

Personal profit should indeed encourage every investor to be proactive, but excessive hopes should not be entertained on that basis. Not all those who obtain investments are accustomed from childhood to work and supervision; they may sometimes fall into the hands of those who have squandered their money, learned and done nothing and now wish for nothing more than to be supported on any grounds whatsoever. With such people the risk is excessive and the capital virtually lost. But if they are able to dodge responsibility by any possible means, then others of mediocre diligence are lulled into security: they think they can always use the same expedients to avoid being called to account that have served the former and then share their idleness. Eventually hunger and poverty intervene, and when the fatherland at last grows tired of providing support to idle hands, they often take it into their heads to seek it abroad. We have seen useless citizens among us become industrious and hard-working ones elsewhere when they have been closely supervised. The generosity and indulgence that is thus shown to slackers in that way contributes little to the improvement of the fatherland.

Third, our handicrafts are forced by excessive measures for small factories. Such a grand building plan is often conceived among us for the construction of a factory that half or a whole generation is spent in completing it before the work can even begin. As the investment hardly suffices for the former, the latter comes to nothing.

Extravagance and the aim of achieving fame due to one’s projects have hitherto been the main incentives among private individuals, but if such factories are to be established at public expense, another and more dangerous one arises, when the funding becomes the main attraction and one looks more to how long a means of livelihood may last than to when and how well it may recover the capital invested in it.

Fourth, and last, our crafts are quite considerably hampered by compelling the workers to submit to guild rules and other regulations. That unskilled people and interlopers should not be permitted, especially in towns, to impede experienced craftsmen in their lawful occupation is quite reasonable, but that those who have learned some craft should still live under constraint will never do the country much good.

Restricting the number of craftsmen turns them into monopolists. That power of theirs becomes intolerable for the people who need their services, but even more so for their employees. They are then able to set such a value on their work as will support their high living and extravagance. And their workers must be content with the wages that they think fit to pay.

We had pitiful evidence of this a few years ago in the Tailors’ Guild in Stockholm. Its members had come to an internal agreement on what should be provided in payment in kind and weekly wages to journeymen in their employ, which the latter regarded as impossible to live on. The journeymen requested an increase but were not heeded: despair, hunger and resentment drove them to obtain by coercion what they could not gain by persuasion. The measures taken by the authorities did indeed reduce them to obedience again, but what love that awakened in them for their fatherland and how long they may all have remained in Sweden is easy to judge.


  1. the simultaneous pursuit of various crafts: Chydenius here presents a notion that was fairly common during the Age of Liberty: since the craftsmen did not specialize enough and pursued several crafts simultaneously, their professional skills were poor and hence the quality of their products low.

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